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The Biodesign Institute is multidisciplinary in nature, combining expertise in a diverse array of fields, such as biology, chemistry, physics, applied mathematics and engineering, each with a rich history of specialized language. The following are just some of the examples of terminology used in our research.

actuator – a device that produces mechanical force by means of a pressurized fluid which can be either pneumatic or hydraulic

adhesion proteins – molecules that help cells stick to each other through specialized proteins found on the cell’s surface. These proteins can be present on pathogens to enable adherence and infection

algorithm – a computational procedure which can be applied to obtain a solution to a problem or a method of solving a problem by repeatedly using a simpler computational method

ambient intelligence – a future vision of electronic and computer devices or network of devices that will automatically be sensitive and responsive to people in their home and work environments

anisotropy – a term used to describe something with physical properties that are different in different directions or along the direction which the measurement is made

antigen – a substance that is a foreign to the body which stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies

aptamers – short strands of DNA or RNA molecules that have been selected from random pools based on their ability to bind other molecules

atomic force microscopy (AFM) – A type of microscopy that maps the topography of a surface by using a force sensor (piezoelectric sensor) that mechanical tracts over the area of interest to provide information about the chemical nature of a surface

biochips – a miniaturized device about the size of a fingernail that can perform thousands of biological reactions in a few seconds. Biochips are typically used in large-scale genetic, DNA, toxicologic and biochemical analyses. For example, all of the genes in human DNA (about 30,000) can be placed on a single biochip

bioinformatics – a field of science that merges biology, computer science and statistics typically applied to the management and analysis of large data sets generated in biological research involving DNA and protein analyses

biosensor – a device used for detecting chemical or physical signals that provide information about specific biological activities such as blood pressure or heart monitors

blood-brain barrier – a microscopic meshwork that prevents many substances circulating in the bloodstream from entering the brain

cellular immunity – immune protection provided by the direct action of immune cells (lymphocytes) found in the body

central nervous system (CNS) – the part of the nervous system that contains the brain and spinal cord

chemokines – a family of small cytokines, or proteins, secreted by cells. Some chemokines are proinflammatory and can be induced during an immune response to promote cells of the immune system to a site of infection, while others are considered homeostatic and are involved in controlling the migration of cells during normal processes of tissue maintenance or development.

chromatin – a complex made up of protein and DNA that forms chromosomes in eukaryotic organisms

computational neuroscience – an interdisciplinary field that combines neuroscience, computer science and mathematics to understand the function of the nervous system

coronavirus – a group of viruses characterized by having a halo or crown-like (corona) structure under the microscope. Corona viruses are a common cause of mild to moderate upper-respiratory illness in humans and are associated with respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver and neurologic disease in animals

cytokines – hormones produced by white blood cells (lymphocytes) that communicate with other cells of the immune system, recruiting them to perform more aggressive roles in fighting off an infection or in the rejection of something from the body.

definsins – a family of potent antibiotics made within the body by neutrophils (a type of white blood cell) and macrophages (cells that can engulf foreign particles). The defensins play important roles against invading microbes. They act against bacteria, fungi and viruses by binding to their membranes and increasing membrane permeability.

directed evolution – a laboratory process whereby mechanisms employed during “natural” selection are employed at the molecular and single-cell level to cause and then identify evolutionary adaptations to novel environmental challenges. This often includes deliberate modification of genetic sequences. DNA – the genetic material of all cellular organisms and most viruses

DNA fingerprinting – a method of forensic analysis that compares fragments of DNA to distinguish between different individuals

DNA vaccines – DNA used to boost and generate immune responses

epitope – a specific chemical domain on an antigen that stimulates the production of, and is recognized by, an antibody. Each epitope on a molecule, such as protein, elicits the synthesis of a different antibody

endosome – a cellular structure involved in the transport of proteins from the outside to the inside of the cell

field effect transistor (FET) – a transistor that uses an electric field on a region within the semiconductor in order to block or allow conduction

flexible displays – future thin, sleek monitors that can be built on bendable frames or flexible plastics that integrate novel circuit designs on plastic with new chemical materials to generate the displays

fluorescent sensors – a device that produces light by causing a substance called a phosphor to emit light, or fluoresce, in order to measure changes in temperature, position or chemical concentration

fluorochrome – any of a group of fluorescent dyes used to stain biological specimens.

focused ion beam (FIB) system – a device that is typically used in semiconductor manufacturing to examine defects or circuits. A FIB system uses a beam of gallium ions for imaging an object or a higher beam current for the milling of material from the surface of a sample

fuel cell – a device in which the energy of a chemical reaction is converted directly into electricity and heat, without any combustion

functional genomics – an area of genetics that focuses on determining the function of all of the genetic information, or genome, present in a cell

fuzzy logic – in computer science, a form of logic allowing for ambiguous answers to questions that is designed to allow computers to mimic human intelligence

gene – a basic biological unit of heredity composed of a DNA (or RNA) sequence which specifies a protein

gene expression – the process by which a cell’s genetic information is converted into structures operating in a cell

gene regulatory networks – the on-off switches of a cell that control the rates at which genes are transcribed into messenger RNA and later translated into proteins

gene transcription – the process by which a gene’s DNA is read to produce messenger RNA

genetic engineering – technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a DNA molecule to change the information it contains. By altering this information, genetic engineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism produces, thus enabling it to make new substances or perform new functions

genome – the collection of the complete set of DNA information in a cell. A genome contains all of the genetic information or hereditary material found in an organism

gigaflop – a unit of measure of computer processing speed equal to one billion floating-point operations per second carried out by supercomputers (giga = billion)

heterologuous prime boost vaccines – a new approach to immunization that uses different combinations of vaccines, such as genetically engineered DNA vaccines with live bacterial or viral vectors, to boost the immune response

high throughput – a term used to describe many genome and proteome studies which rely on technologies necessary to process and analyze large scale numbers of genes and proteins

hormone – secretory substance carried from one gland or organ of the body via the bloodstream to specific tissues, where it exerts some influence upon the metabolism of the target tissue

imaging – technique that provides detailed images of body structures. Signals are generated in the tissues in response to a magnetic field produced by the instrument and are converted by computer into images of body structures

immune system – the collection of organs, tissues, cells and genetic components found in the body that are involved in the providing a defense against potentially harmful cells, viruses, bacteria, proteins and parasites

immunoassay – a biochemical test that measures the level of bodily reaction to a foreign object that may be harmful to the body

infectious disease – a clinically evident disease of humans or animals that damages or injures the host, impairing host function. These diseases result from the presence and activity of one or more pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular parasites, and aberrant proteins known as prions. Transmission may occur through contact with infected individuals, water or food; through airborne inhalation; or through vector-borne spread.

innate immunity – cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms, in a nonspecific manner. The innate system does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host

interferon – a set of natural proteins made by cells of the immune systems of most animals in response to virus infection or antigen stimulation

intracellular recording – a method for measuring a single neuron or other cell in which one electrode (intracellular electrode) is inside the cell and another (extracellular electrode) is outside the neuron to, for example, measure the difference in electric potential

lab-on-a-chip platforms – an effort to miniaturize laboratory tests and other research onto smaller devices analogous to the size of a computer chip

latency – the period in time when an infecting organism is in the body but is not producing any clinically noticeable ill effects or symptoms

liposomes – a tiny artificial sac formed from one or more layers of fat-derived substances, or lipids, that can be used medicinally to carry a drug, vaccine, or enzyme to targeted cells in the body

lysosome – a membrane-bound organelle in the cytoplasm of most cells containing various hydrolytic enzymes that function in intracellular digestion

microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) – a miniaturized mechanical device that has both electrical and mechanical components

microfluidics – a multidisciplinary field comprising physics, chemistry, engineering and biotechnology that studies the behavior of fluids at small scales, often thousands of times smaller than a single drop

molecular biology – the branch of science concerned with the genetic composition and mechanism of living organisms at the molecular level, particularly at the level of understanding DNA gene structure and regulation as it relates to cellular function

molecular electronics – the use of molecules as wires and other components in the construction of electronic circuitry, sensing and optoelectronics

molecular clock – a technique in genetics used by researchers to date when two species diverged. It deduces elapsed time from the number of minor differences between their DNA sequences. It is sometimes called a gene clock

Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA) – an integrated tool for automatic and manual sequence alignment, inferring phylogenetic trees, mining Web-based databases, estimating rates of molecular evolution, and testing evolutionary hypotheses

monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) – identical antibodies produced in large quantities by clones of an artificially created cell

mucosal immunity – immune defenses provided by the mucous membranes and secretory glands of the body, a one-cell layer thick moist barrier found in barrier such as skin, tears, mucus and saliva that contains mucosal cells, B-cells, and T-cells

mutation rate – the speed at which mutations in an organism or a species take place per cell-division cycle or generation

nanotechnology – the science concerned with manipulating materials on a very small scale, the atomic or molecular scale (one nanometer equals one billionth of a meter)

nanoelectronics – any electronics manufactured at the submicron scale, typically less than 100 nanometers

neural interfaces – a technology that allows users to take advantage of small electrical signals generated by their bodies to control computers or electrical devices attached to their computers

neuromorphic control systems – a science merged with neuroscience, computer, and electrical engineering that advances the implementation of computer systems whose architecture and design are based on neurobiology

neuronal plasticity – the ability of the brain and/or certain parts of the nervous system to change in order to adapt to new conditions, such as an injury

neuroprosthetics – the science of controlling electronic devices by developing implants or taking measurements from the brain

neurotransmitter – a chemical signal made by neurons, or nerve cells to communicate with other cells in the brain and nervous system, transmitting impulses from neuron to neuron, muscle or glands

organic semiconductors – an organic substance with low electrical resistance

orthotic systems – the science and technology of applying support to the skeleton for better mobility and posture, especially when supporting weak or injured joints and muscles

pathogens (or infectious agent) – a biological agent that can cause disease to its host. The term is most often used for agents that disrupt the normal physiology of a multicellular animal or plant.

peptides – a small fragment of a protein consisting of a short chain of protein building blocks, or amino acids, typically four to 10 protein amino acids long

phagosome – a membranous sac formed within some types of cells that contains the microorganisms or other small particles that the cell has engulfed in order to destroy

photobiology – study of the effects of light on living organisms. The field encompasses many biological phenomena, including photosynthesis, visual processing, circadian rhythms, and ultraviolet radiation effects.

photosynthetic antenna complexes – a solar energy storage system found in photosynthetic organisms, including plants, algae, and a variety of types of bacteria

plant-derived pharmaceuticals – the production of potential lifesaving drugs in plants

pox viruses – a family of viruses that can infect animals, characterized by pockmarks produced by the viral infection. The last naturally occurring outbreak of smallpox was in 1977

proteins – a biological molecule important in many cellular processes that consists of many building blocks, called amino acids, that are chained together by chemical bonds. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule

protein engineering – a technology to improve on existing proteins, usually enzymes, and to create proteins not found in nature. This may be accomplished through genetic engineering

proteomics – the study of all the proteins that are expressed in a cell or organism

proton pumps – proteins that facilitate the transport of substances across the cell membrane, requiring the use of cellular energy to actively pump substances into or out of the cell

reverse genetics – a genetic approach that begins with discovery of a gene (or its DNA sequence) and then uncovers its biological function

RNA – a molecule similar to DNA that is responsible for translating the genetic code into proteins

RNA viruses – a virus that either uses RNA as its genetic material, or whose genetic material passes through an RNA intermediate during replication

scanning electron microscopy (SEM) – Using a microscope in which a finely focused beam of electrons is scanned across a specimen and the electron intensity variations are used to construct an image of the specimen. This type of microscope is ideal for magnifications from 200 to 35,000

scanning probe microscopy (SPM) – scanning probe microscopy refers to microscopy techniques, where the sample is not imaged at once, but scanned line by line. It includes scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), confocal laser scanning microscopy, and near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM)

serotypes (or serovar) – a grouping of microorganisms or viruses based on their cell surface antigens. Serotypes allow organisms to be classified at the subspecies level; an issue of particular importance in epidemiology

synapse – the space or gap found between neurons

systemic immunity – an immune response that affects the body as a whole

translation – a process where the information contained in messenger RNA is converted to make proteins

transgenic organism – a plant, animal or bacteria that has been genetically modified to contain a gene from a different species

transmission electron microscopy (TEM) – an imaging technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen, then an image is formed, magnified and directed to appear either on a fluorescent screen or layer of photographic film or to be detected by a sensor such as a charged-coupled device (CCD) camera

virions – a complete virus particle or the form taken by a virus when it is outside living cells and capable of causing infection. Virions consist of a core of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat, sometimes covered by an outer envelope